"Boy meets girl. Boy loses girl. Boy finds girl." We usually think of narration as story-telling, but there's a second form of narration that involves relating the steps in a process. In either case, there's a chronological sequence. In story-telling the sequence is in the form of a plot. In a process-telling, the sequence is in the form of a series of steps aimed at accomplishing something. We might commonly speak of "describing" a process and "telling" a story, but it's more accurate to say that we "narrate" both. In one instance, we're telling through Artistic truth; in the other, we're telling a scientific truth. The Characteristics of Narration Both stories and processes unfold over time because narration is dynamic. As a story is told, time passes and changes take place. The characters change their minds or their fortunes change. The setting of the story changes. Or the conflict changes, from its development to its resolution. The same is true for a process; time passes and changes take place. The toy which was in pieces at the beginning of the assembly process, stands ready to ride when the process is complete. This change in things, which is tied to 'cause and effect,' takes the reader through the story or the assembly process. Narrating Events When you narrate events, you use one of the oldest devices in writing: PLOT. Events are constructed in a way that causes the reader tow wonder what will happen next. An event happens which causes something else to happen (an effect), and that, in turn, causes something else to happen. And so on. Each event in the narrative is the effect of the event that preceded it and the cause of the one that follows. EVENT 1--->EVENT 2--->EVENT 3--->EVENT 4--->EVENT 5 Event 1 is the Initiating Cause; Event 2 is the Effect of Event 1 and the Cause of Event 2 , and so forth. Like a row of dominos lined up one behind the other, each thing that happens results from the previous thing and causes the next one. Why does domino number three fall? Because number two hit it. What caused number four to fall? Number three. Each domino, each event, causes the next. This cause and effect relationship is central to the narrative mode. Here's an example: EVENT 1: Boy bumps into girl on his way to popcorn stand at movie (Super Cinema-20 screens); knocks her popcorn all over the floor; he's flustered and offers to buy her a new box. EVENT 2: Girl tells him that won't be necessary. Asks why he was rushing. EVENT 3: Boy explains that the movie is exciting and he doesn't want to miss anything. EVENT 4: Girl says that the movie she's watching is dull. EVENT 5: Boy suggests girl come to his theatre instead. EVENT 6: Girl accepts and goes with boy to his theatre. Not a very interesting story, but you get the idea. Perhaps it would be more interesting if the boy realized that the girl he brought to the movie in the first place is still inside the theatre and so takes the girl to another theatre and that turns out to be the one she just left because she was bored. Nonetheless, the example shows how the PLOT works. Bumping into the girl (Initial Cause) causes the popcorn to be dropped. The effect is that the boy explains is move is exciting, which causes her to explain that her movie is dull. The effect is that the boy invites her to his theatre, which causes her to accept. And so on. The Structure of the Narration of Events A narration of events is generally built around five distinct parts: Potential The circumstances exist for events to take place; though some types of circumstances may seem to have more potential than others, to a good writer, any situation has the potential for a good story. (The popcorn stand, in the example, has the potential.) Initiation An event or disturbance of the status quo occurs; this is the first of the series of events creating the plot--the Initial Event. (The big bump and spilling of the popcorn.) Interaction The complications of the story evolve as characters and their actions begin to have an impact on one another. (The conversatin between the boy and the girl.) Climax When things reach a point where a decision must be made or some kind of action taken, the climax occurs; all of the forces come together at this point. (Sometimes the climax is called the crisis.) Resolution Though not always satisfying, the major problems which were brought out are somehow settled; the decision is made or the necessary action is taken. This is where the story usually ends. You're usually left with the feeling that things will work out. The writer can turn the events around, reverse the order, or introduce other variations, but the five parts are always there. Through devices like flashbacks, foreshadowing, and reversing the chronology, the writer can change the presentation of the story's parts to suit the purpose of the piece. For example, a newspaper reporter, telling the story of a murder, should be Scientific, so accuracy and objectivity are most important. he or she should tell the story in a straightforward manner and only report the facts. They should tell the reader who the killer is right away. On the other hand, if the writer is putting together a murder mystery, the purpose is to present Artistic Truth; they need to create suspense, so they would do well to keep the killer's identity from the reader until the very end. The Presentation of the Plot in a Narration of Events There are four popular methods for organizing event narratives. The purpose determines which of the methods to use. Chronological If the story is told in the same order as events in "real time" it has a chronological plot. The story begins with the earliest event and concludes with the latest, as in the following example. Ted was born in a major Northeast city. He was the youngest of four boys and at a very early age he demonstrated an outstanding aptitude for mathematics. In his senior year in high school he scored highest in the state on the math section of his college entrance exams. This achievement won him a full tuition scholarship to the college of his choice. He used it to attend UCLA and went on to earn a Ph.D. in mathematics from Stanford University by the time he was 25. Ted wasn't so successful in his personal life. Although he had married Annie, his college sweetheart, upon graduating from UCLA, the relationship became an unhappy one. By the time he was 30 years old, he was widely recognized as a prominent figure in his field, but his personal life was a shambles. He was divorced at age 31, the same year he was awarded tenure in the Mathematics Department at the University. After his divorce, Ted devoted himself entirely to his studies and research. This year he is among the nominees for the coveted Ether Award for his academic achievements. He was a success in his chosen field, but a failure in his chosen relationships. Reverse Chronological Plot In this format, the sequence of the narration is the same as that above, but in reverse. The story is told from the last event to the first. For example: Dr. Bo Dujour is among this year's nominees for the coveted Ether Award for his academic achievement in the field of mathematics. Dr. Dujour has devoted most of his time over the past five years to study and research at the University's Mathematics Department where he became a tenured professor at age 31. Dujour earned a Ph.D. in applied mathematics form Stanford University after completing his undergraduate work at UCLA. He attended UCLA on a full scholarship awarded to him because of his high score in mathematics on his college entrance exams. Even as a young boy, growing up in a small town in West Texas, Dujour demonstrated an outstanding aptitude for math. Plot Narration with Flashbacks A flashback narration begins somewhere in the middle of the plot, returns to the beginning and then moves through the story to the end. (An alternate method for this is to begin at the end and tell the various events inter- mittently.) If you write a story this way, you have to trust the reader's sense of time to put the chronology together. He stood in front of the mirror struggling with his bow tie. He could never get the thing to come out right. Tonight was no different. He would show up at the award ceremony with one end of his tie heading north and the other going south while he attempted light conversation with the other nominees at his table. He would be alone, of course. Since he and Annie divorced there was never anyone he felt like taking to these affairs. "Dujour," he said out loud. "You may know how to add, but you don't know how to live with a woman." He stared at his image and thought back on his life. He was a young boy again, growing up in West Texas, dreaming his summers away with his brothers as they spent their time swimming and climbing mesquite trees. Then some of his dreams started to come true. He got a big college scholarship and he married the most beautiful little brunette that ever went to UCLA. She was smart, too, but he couldn't understand her anger, why she chaffed so in the role of a professor's wife. It hurt like hell when he came home full of the news of his tenure award only to find that she was leaving. He played her words again in his head. "I'm glad for you. But I can't stay. I can't do this anymore. You'll have to tie your own bow ties and find someone else to smile and flatter your bosses at those faculty functions. I have my own life to live and I'm starting it right now. I'll be back in a couple of days to get more of my things." She did start a different life. He often saw her on news programs or talk shows discussing women's issues and supporting various groups. "She's still beautiful" he thought as he looked at his crooked tie, sighed, and left the house full of both anticipation and dread. This artistic narrative uses a flashback, beginning at the final event. Intermittent events in the character's life are revealed by his reflecting on his recent past and how he got to this point in his career. The story then returns to present events and concludes with the character going out on his own to face his future. Stream of Consciousness Plot Narration In this form of narration, the only relationship between the events (rather than cause and effect) is the narrator's memory. June 13, 1983: I remember the place; under the porch. That's where they kept the bike. And the tiny TV in the living room. Santa Claus in the attic at Christmas. Ho ho ho. What a crock. And Grandma's smell. Her apron on my face when I cried. But I don't really remember her dying. I just remember the bike. And not seeing her any more. (I still cry sometimes, though.) The events in this narrative, which has an expressive aim, are presented in the order in which the writer thinks of them, and that depends upon how they are organized in his or her mind. That is the only sequence. Plot Presentation as it Relates to the Truth With the exception of the first type (Chronological Narration), variations in the presentation of the plot are primarily used in Artistic Writing and Persuasive Writing. Much artistic writing is fictional. The story is made up. It never really happened. So you're free to tell the story in any sequence that suits your purpose and that purpose is to generate the emotions of the reader. If you can create suspense by witholding information, then you're free to do so. Some Persuasive writing is fictional as well. The parables of Christ and many of the fairy tales you heard as a child. "The Boy Who Cried Wolf" and Little Red Riding Hood" have a message behind them--don't cry for help unless you're serious; don't talk to strangers. These stories are made up for the sole purpose of changing the reader's mind, so the outcome is designed to have an effect on the reader which results in a changed viewpoint. And even when the writing is factual, when the aim is Artistic or Influential, you can recount the events in a different order if that will entertain or persuade your reader. Probability in the Narration of Events If you have ever read or heard a story and doubted it could reall happen, you know that probability is important to narration. Probability concerns the likelihood of the events in your story--not just what happens, but the sequence in which it happens. As a story unfolds, its success depends upon how believable it is. If your reader has reason to doubt the probability of the things that happen, he or she probably won't accept the outcome. Probability also concerns the internal reality of the story. We don't believe in fairy tales, so we won't accept the things that happen in Cinderella as real events. But we do accept such things in fairy tales. The internal reality of Cinderella tells us that fairy godmothers exist and perform miracles. On the other hand, the internal reality of a murder mystery is such that the appearance of a fairy godmother would be entirely out of place (unless the writer is playing it for laughs.) Your reader expects certain things. If your story is set in his or her world, then the odds of something happening ought to be the same. Narration of Process Narration of a process does not follow the cause and effect sequence of the narrattion of events. Rather than telling a "story," the author tells how to do something (an instructional process), how something is done (a natural process), or how something happens (an artificial process). A process is a series of events that occurs in the same order and in the same way every time. Unlike the narration of events, which relates a one-time occurrence, a process narrative is a repeated (or likely to be repeated) sequence. Regardless of the type of process, there is always a result which the writer has for the reader. This is the final product or resolution toward which the process is proceeding. Instructions for baking a cake result in the production of the cake. An explanation of the process of registering for college results in the student getting registered. (If the result is not realized, the process narration is not very well written.) Instructional Processes An instructional process has as its result the completion of a task or the creation of a product. The process of brewing a fresh pot of coffee results in a pot of freshly brewed coffee. The process of changing a flat tire results in the flat being replaced by a good tire. These are called instructional because they require the action of a person or persons. The following example, taken from a computer user's manual, presents such a sequence. The result is the entry of common customer account information into a computer database. ENTERING COMMON ACCOUNT INFORMATION Group your accounts by common characteristics such as city, state, account type, and so on. Enter transaction code RUZ at the MAIN MENU. Complete each of the fields in the following steps by typing in the information and pressing the RETURN key after each entry. Enter the name of the city to which the majority of your customer statements are sent. Enter the two-character Postal Service abbreviation for the state. (You can enter the ZIP code for the billing address in an easy-to-update form. For example, if most of your statements are mailed to the area beginning with 75, enter the ZIP code as 75___, and complete the remaining digits when you create the individual accounts.) Enter the common part of the telephone number that covers the majority of your customers' exchanges. (For example, area code 512 and exchange 474 would be entered as 512 474-____.) Enter the appropriate code for the type of account most common to this group of customers: 1 for OPEN ITEM, 2 for BALANCE FORWARD or 3 for INSTALLMENT LOAN. Enter the established payment code that is most common to this group of customers (1 through 9). NOTE: The payment code must match the account type. Enter the designated price level that is most common to this group of customers (0 through 3, with 0 representing Retail). Enter the letter T, for Taxable, if most of your customers have sales tax added to their purchases. Enter E, for Exempt, if most customers are exempt from sales tax. Enter A to have the system check credit for the entire account and determine if payment is late; enter an S to check the specific job number (sub-account) attached to the account. Enter Y (Yes) if most of your customer accounts are subject to finance charges; or enter N (No) if most of your customers are exempt from finance charges. Enter the dollar amount of credit that is customarily extended to most of your customers. Enter the beginning account number if you want the computer to automatically assign your account numbers. Enter the number1 if you are developing your own account numbers. The message PRESS RETURN TO RECORD INFORMATION is displayed at the bottom of your screen. Check your entries for errors and if you notice any errors in your data entry, correct the information by using the FIELD key to return the cursor to the incorrect entry before you press the RETURN key. Reprinted from the Accounts Receivable User's Manual ProfitMaster Computer Corporation, Austin, Texas 1988) Although this example uses numbers to identify the steps, they are not required in every process narration. They're generally helpful in longer, more detailed sets of instructions. Artificial Processes At the conclusion of the preceding process narration, you should have all of the information entered into the computer. But writers also describe processes that they don't expect the reader to accomplish. These are generally written in the first or third person, using I or he, she, or it as the subject. The writer may expect the reader to understand something about the process, but does not expect the reader to be able to do it. In the next example the previous example is rewritten as an artificial process. To get common account information into the computer system, the user groups accounts by common characteristics. He or she uses the RUZ option to enter the data. The date entered includes the name of the city to which the majority of the customer statements are sent, the ZIP code, the common part of the telephone number, the appropriate code for the account type (Open Item, Balance Forward, or Installment Loan), the payment code, the designated price level, taxability, codes for credit checking and finance charges, and the dollar amount of credit that is customarily extended to most of the customers. The beginning account number, an option item, is also entered. Then entries are checked for errors and corrected and the data is saved. In addition to the change in pronoun, you probably noticed that many details have been left out. This is because the writer does not expect the reader to be able to do the task, only that he or she have some knowledge of it. The following example has characteristics of both instructional and artificial process narratives. Build Your Own Superconducting Motor Researchers at Argonne National Laboratory have already built the first one. They used a small aluminum disk, a bunch of nuts, bolts, and copper wire you could buy at a hardware store, a block of Styrofoam, a few soda straws, graphite brushes, and the key component little superconducting yttrium-barium-copper-oxide pucks. The motor they assembled produces a negligible amount of power, but it works: the aluminum disk spins at about 50 revolutions per minute. Here's how it's done. Copper wire is wound around bolts to make 24 electromagnets, which are then glued to the bottom of the disk. The magnets are paired to contact points near the center of the disk. A black superconductor puck is placed in a cavity in the Styrofoam base, and the disk is mounted above it. Copper leads inside the straws, connected to graphite brushes, carry electric current to the electromagnet that is located right above the puck. When liquid nitrogen is poured into the Styrofoam cavity, the puck is cooled to -321 degrees Fahrenheit and becomes superconducting. The magnetic field of the electromagnet induces electric currents in the superconductor, and those currents in turn generate a magnetic field that opposes the field of the electromagnet. As a result, the superconductor pushes the electromagnet away, just as the north pole of one magnet repels the north pole of another. (This phenomenon, called the Meissner effect, may one day serve as the basis for magnetically levitated trains.) The disk rotates, breaking the circuit through the electromagnet but then current flows through the next electromagnet. The superconductor gives it a kick, and the process is repeated as the disk picks up speed. To reach 50 rpm (enough for a superconducting record player, if you keep enough liquid nitrogen around the house), you need two superconducting pucks placed on opposite sides of the cavity. Argonne ceramicist Roger Poeppel, who headed the project, is quick to point out that the motor itself won't be of much use. "It's not a practical motor, nor is it a practical design," he says; the point was only to "show that it could be done. We want to get others to think about it." According to Poeppel, truly practical superconducting motors, which would be smaller and lighter than existing electromotors, won't be built for at least ten years.                   (from DISCOVER Magazine, April 1988) Natural Processes The third type of process narration involves processes that occur without human intervention. Many scientific studies report on phenomena that occur in nature. Indeed, much of science is concerned with the narration of processes in an effort to understand them. The following explanation of the process that creates lightning over a volcano is an example of the narration of a natural process. Volcanic Lightning by Mark Kemp The lightning is triggered by a buildup of static electricity in the cloud of erupting ash; friction among the swirling particles causes them to become electrically charged, just as you do when you shuffle across a carpet in your socks. When a large enough volume of opposing charges accumulates, lightning flashes from one part of the ash cloud to another, or from the cloud to the ground. This piece narrates a process that is routine in nature. It happens over and over again in much the same way. Time passes, since the mode is dynamic, and the impression of totality (the sense that the process is complete) is created. This is just an impression, though, since a perfect record of everything happening in this process would go on for pages. The truth in the Cinderella story is artistic. The accounting procedures and the Volcanic Lightning narration aim for scientific truth. Though any purpose can use a process narration as its method, the artistic and scientific purposes are more commonly found joined with the process narration. Who is the Narrator A question basic to narration is "Who is the narrator?" Who is telling the story or presenting the procedure? Though we usually equate the author with the narrator, that may not always the case. Although the author wrote the narrative, he or she may not always be the speaker, the voice we hear telling the story. On the evening news, for example, the newscaster is the narrator, but he usually is not the author. The news story was written by a newswriter. The decision about who the narrator is depends upon the aim. This chart, like the earlier ones, should help you to identify the relationship between Aim and Mode. When the narrative mode is used, the question of who is narrating makes this relationship easy to identify. TRUTH NARRATOR BECAUSE Scientific Many authors In the case of scientific writing, credit for the research often belongs to a group Artistic A character in the story This style of writing requires an intimacy that comes best from someone involved. Personal The author By definition, the only possible 'speaker' is the individual. Influential ...unknown By it's very nature, influential writing is deceptive., so the influential writer may want you to think the narrator is someone other than who you think it is...someone you will believe. The Process of Narration Before beginning to write, determine the truth you wish to present, then review the various narrative voices and find an approach which works best with the that truth. (You may have to experiment, writing the piece more than once to determine which technique works best.) The narration of an event is a one-time thing. The illusion created leaves the reader feeling that it could not happen again at least not in the same way. The narration of a process deals clearly with repetitive events. Very often, the parts of a process must be repeated in the same order. The narrator may not always be the author. Writers use "voices" and are usually able to assume the guise of someone else. This is most often the case in influential and artistic writing. All narratives must have believability. Though not related to the real world, the internal reality of the narrative must hold up. The reader must always be willing to accept the possibility of the story in light of the implied circumstances. Chronological order is the most common and convenient method for organizing the narrative, so if you attempt another approach be sure there are sound reasons for doing so. Anything less than chronological order runs the risk of confusing the reader. Look at these Discovery Questions before you begin to write: For Narration of Events: What are the events in your narrative? How do the forces interact? What is the crisis? How is the conflict resolved? Where does the narrative take place? Who is the narrator? For Narration of Process What type of process are you narrating? What are the steps? Are they in the proper sequence? What is the process goal? Have you given enough information? Go back to the... Composition Page | Infirmary Page This Page Updated 06/10/05 All material on this and subsequent pages is the property of DrWrite.com©. Unless otherwise specified, you may not reproduce the contents in any form without permission.