We organize information in a variety of ways. Check out the local supermarket: you'll find the products you want because they are organized in various sections; vegetables and fruits here, meat over there, dairy products in the back, and so forth. The arrangement makes it easy for shoppers to find the groceries they need. It's also worth mentioning that although having the items grouped that way makes it easier to find them, they aren't necessarily located in places that make them easy to reach. For example, milk, which is an item often on the top of the shopping list, is usually in the back of the store because this forces the shopper to walk past other items and that might generate additional purchases. If the milk were in frot, the customer would likely walk in, buy the milk, and leave without buying anything else.

When you go to a library to find a book, you know where to find it because it has been put in a place with other books of thesame kind. Psychology books are in one place, Literature in another, and books on automotive repair in another. Again you can see that the principle of arrangement is based on a classification system, putting books of the same type together.

The tendency to classify seems to be a human preoccupation. Films are rated G, PG, R, and X. Vitamins are A, B, C, and so on. Singers are sopranos, altos, tenors, and basses. Musical instruments are strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion.

Using a system of classification to organize a paper is an effective method for achieving clarity. Almost any topic you want to write about can be organized by using a system of classification. All you do is ask the question, "What kinds of _____ are there?" The answer to the question is a system of classification that tells you how to arrange the details of your paper. If I ask a question like, "What kinds of audio systems are there?" the answer to the question gives me a system of classification, a way of organizing a paper about computer systems. The classification system for a computer system might look something like this:

COMPUTERS Mainframes Minicomputers Personal Computers

Classification uses categorical relationships to organize writing. To classify (as a method) you group things based on their similarity. Almost any topic you want to write about can be developed by using classification.

A Basic Principle of Classification: Limit Your Topic
As a general rule papers you write in college should be limited to anywhere from three to five categories. In the example above (computer systems) you can see that the topic was limited to three major categories, but not all topics are as easy. For some topics, you'll have to play with the structure of the system in order to get the kind of narrowing you need.

Let's suppose you were writing an informative paper on kinds of household appliances, and you asked the question, "What kinds of household appliances are there?" One answer to the question would be a list like this:

Admiral, Amana, AMC, Brothers, Caloric, Emerson, Frigidaire, Gaffers/Sattler, Gibson, GE/Hotpoint Jenn-Air Kelvinator Kenmore Kitchen-Aid Litton Magic Chef Maytag methodrn Maid Norse Quasar Roper Scotsman Sears Kenmore Speed Queen Sub-Zero Tappan Thermador U Line Wards Westinghouse Whirlpool

Obviously, a paper with that many categories would be unmanageable. The categories have to be limited in some way, but if your purpose is Scientific Truth you can't simply select three brands arbitrarily and write your paper. You have an obligation to be comprehensive.

One way out of the dilemma is to change the basis of classification. The basis of classification for the above list is by manufacturer. If you changed the basis of classification to location in the house, you might come up with a system like this:

HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES Laundry Room Kitchen Bathroom

Now you have a classification system with only three categories. If you don't like those categories, you could develop another system by selecting one of the categories, say the kitchen, and create a different type of classification system, as follows:

HOUSEHOLD KITCHEN APPLIANCES Toaster Mixer Stove Microwave Blender Refrigerator Dishwasher

This system could be limited further by narrowing the scope of the category to:

LARGE HOUSEHOLD KITCHEN APPLIANCES Stove Refrigerator Dishwasher or

COUNTERTOP KITCHEN APPLIANCES Toaster Mixer Microwave Blender

But if you had chosen a different basis for classification, other than manufacturer or location, say use or function, your classification system might look like this:

HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES Food Preparation Cleaning Hygiene

Of course that system could be narrowed as we did before with the other bases for classification:

HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES USED FOR FOOD PREPARATION

Cooking Processing Storing

As you might have already realized, classification involves not only the relationships among categories in the system, but also a relationship from general to specific. In the examples you can see that each category is more specific (and smaller) than the one above it. Now, look at the following diagram:

HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES

* Cleaning * * Food Preparation * * Hygiene * Processing Cooking Storing - Mixer - Toaster - Freezer - Processor - Stove - Refrigerator - Blender - Microwave

The category "stove" is more specific than the category "cooking," which is more specific than the category "food preparation." The same kind of relationship between specific and general exists in ALL classification systems.

Classification as a Method for Presenting the Four Kinds of Truth

The previous explanation discussed the characteristics of classification as they apply to the Scientific Truth purpose. Although the same categorical organization can be seen in classifications using the other purposes, there are many variations. For instance, the need for comprehensiveness is only associated with the informative purpose. PERSONAL TRUTH, Literary Truth, and Influental Truth classifications don't require the inclusion of all possible categories for a topic. In addition, categories may overlap and different bases for classification may appear in the same system.

Exploring a Topic Using Classification

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The flow charts (also called tree diagrams or algorithms), like the ones in the examples, are useful tools for exploring topics that are organized by classification. The three diagrams that follow are interconnected and illustrate how classification can be used to explore a topic. Look at them and study the connections among them.

Outlining

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There are other ways of representing classification systems. An outline is one of the most common. Here's an example; the topic is "Kinds of Post-Secondary Education."

KINDS OF POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION

* 4 Year Schools * * Technical / Trade Schools * 2 Year Colleges - Small - Liberal Arts programs 5,000 or less students - Large - Technical Programs More than 5,000

The flow chart for this topic can be outlined as follows:

I. Four Year Schools A. Small B. Large II. Technical and Trade Schools III. Two Year Colleges A. Liberal Arts Programs B. Technical Programs

The resulting essay would read something like this:

Students who want to continue their education beyond high school can choose from a variety of schools. The best known and most common choice is the four-year college or university. These vary in size from very small colleges with a few hundred students to large universities with thousands. Such four-year institutions normally offer a complete liberal arts curriculum as a prerequisite to advanced degrees.

Another kind of post-secondary school is the technical or trade school. These institutions offer training in many specialized technical areas, such as electronics, and trades, such as welding.

A third type of post-secondary school is the two-year college. These usually offer Associate degrees in liberal arts or technical areas. Most two-year community or junior colleges offer the same liberal arts courses as those found in the first two years of a four-year school. After two years (sometimes less) a student may transfer to a four year school. If the student takes courses in trade or technical fields he or she may go immediately into the work force.

Students who plan to continue their education beyond high school should choose the most appropriate post-secondary educational alternative.

Classification and the Writing Process

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Classification, like all methods, can be used with any of the purposes, but certain restrictions apply. If your purpose is PERSONAL TRUTH, you are likely to be classifying abstract things associated with your feelings, and your system of classification may be one that is totally yours. It doesn't require a logical structure.

If your purpose is to present Influental Truth, you want to construct a system where the point of view supports your position. If you compare and contrast, you certainly want to avoid comparisons which are unfavorable to your position and emphasize the contrasting elements that work in your favor.

When your purpose is to presnt Literary Truth, the analogy is most likely to be useful. Analogies invite symbolic interpretations when used in Literary Truth writing. They are also useful in Scientific Truth writing, since they can help translate complex ideas into statements more easily understood by the layman.

Regardless of your purpose, if you are using comparison and contrast remember that the structure of your writing, your choice of alternation or separation of detail, depends upon your purpose. Furthermore, consider outlining your subject, especially if you decide to create categories on your own rather than adopting a classification system already in use. If your purpose is Scientific Truth, a well-thought-out classification system is a must.

Remember this relationship between the method of classification and each of the purposes.

If the purpose is...

PERSONAL TRUTH You classify your feelings, or express your feelings by putting things in categories YOU invent, based on your attitudes toward the thing being classified.

INFLUENTIAL TRUTH Your categories are slanted so that your position is the most favorable; if you use comparison and contrast, you avoid comparisons which do not help you "sell" your position.

LITERARY TRUTH You most likely classify using an analogy, though you may also use categories that are humorous or supportive of the Literary Truth elements (i.e. plot, character, setting, etc.).

SCIENTIFIC TRUTH Your categories are usually based on a system that is universally accepted; all aspects in comparison and contrast are considered, without regard for the outcome.

Consider these questions before you begin writing: * What "kinds" of your topic are there? (List them) * What principle of classification accounts for how you generated your categories? * If you have generated more than five categories, how can you limit the number? * What details will you include in each category? * What other methods will you use to develop the categories?